Artificial Intelligence

It is an advanced concept of computer science that studies how human think, and then attempts to apply that knowledge in hardware and software to give computers similar capabilities. Areas of research include speech and pattern recognition, the ability to perform language translations, natural language processing, the ability to learn from previous experience, and the information. Practical applications for AI range from medical diagnostics to computer configuration and the interpretation of oil well logging data. In Artificial Intelligence, problem solving and decision making system that uses a computer representation derived from the knowledge and experience of a human expert is called expert system. An expert system consists of two parts: the domain or database of factual knowledge about the subject, and a set of rules that provide a method of using that knowledge. Expert systems are usually confined to a very narrow area of expertise. This is also known as rule-based system.

Fifth Generation Computers (Future)

The microprocessors which are extensively used as memory devices contain very pure form of silicon in crystal form. Attempts are being made by Japan, Germany and USA for the development of memory device and main processors (microprocessors) by using protein or Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), after the use of which, it has been estimated, the capability of computer will increase millions of times. Recently, these are named as Super Conductors. Japan has taken keen interest to win the race of developing super computers by using super conductors. These computers may possibly be very small like microcomputers which should enable us to use all the facilities of super computers at home. The development of super conductors was declared by Japan in 1978.

Attempts have been made for several years fora the development of super conductors using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) or biochips. These computers will be able to understand natural language and will have thinking power called Artificial Intelligence. Only the experts will be able to use these computers because they will be much more sophisticated than present microcomputers.

Fourth Generation Computers (1974)

Intel Corporation developed Intel 4004 chips in 1971 for the first time as microprocessors. The result of the development of IC is the development of microcomputers. Many American computers started to manufacture microcomputers since 1973. IT System, AST, ALR, Macintosh, IBM PC Agtec, Wang Laser, Letron, Scan and Imex microcomputers (IBM and IBM compatibles) came into market. Microcomputers are highly efficient in data processing, very much reliable, small and elegant. It can accommodate a huge number of data in a small place. Micro computers are as small as a notebook and are capable of communicating with Mini Computers or Mainframe Computers with the help of Modem (Modulator and Demodulator). In urban areas of Kathmandu and Lalitpur only, many computers are used per household. They are used in teaching, offices, campuses, government and non-government organizations. All the computers used at home and in offices are fourth generation microcomputers. The main processors used in these computers are microprocessors.

Fourth Generation Computers have microprocessors which have serial numbers. The serial number indicates the capability of the computer and speed as well.

In Large Scale Integration (LSI) about 20 thousand transistors and resistors are placed in compact form. Later the compact form of LSI was developed, in which 10/20 LSI could be placed, which was called VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration). The VLSIs are called microchips or microprocessors. The development of VLSI leads to the development of Home computers or Personal Computers (PC), which are famous worldwide and are mostly used.

Third Generation Computers (1966-1973)

Manufacture of silicon chips was completed in late 1950s and in 1963, IBM company marketed computers containing IC as memory devices. IBM 360 is an example of this type. From 1964 computers began to be connected with Visual Display Unit (VDU), high speed printers and magnetic tapes as storage media or backing media. All computers after 1965 contain IC in them. Third generation computers are still small in size and they are much faster as they used small chips containing thousands of parts integrated in them. For mass storage, floppy disk, hard disk, tape or card were used in this generation of computers. Multiprocessing and multiprogramming are the two main advantages of this generation of computers. Actual market of computers started from the third generation of computers.

Second Generation Computers (1959-1965)

Transistor was invented by Nobel Prize winners John Burdeen, Walter H. Brattain and William B. Shockley who jointly invented transistor ( short name for transfer resistor) in 1948-1949. Magnetic core of transistor is more capable of storing information than vacuum tube. The computers using transistors as storage media are classified as Second Generation Computers. One transistor could do the task of 1000 vacuum tubes. Due to this reason, it seemed that smaller and faster computers can be manufactured. We can take an example of Mark-I which has 18000 vacuum tubes and can b replaced by 18 transistors. IBM 1401 is an example of this advantage. Second Generation Computers are relatively smaller than the First Generation Computers and they are much faster and reliable.

General purpose computer was first developed by IBM. In 1950, IBM developed IBM 650, a general purpose computer. Similarly, in 1951, Remington Rand developed UNIVAC-I which could be used in business data processing. During this period, many other companies were also involved in developing computers.

First Generation Computers (1946-1958)

The storage media or memory used in the first generation computer was vacuum tube. Mark-I was developed using vacuum tubes by Howard Aiken in 1937. Mark-I had a length of 51ft, width 3ft and a height of 8ft. It weighed 32 tonnes. 18000 vacuum tubes were used and nearly 7 lakh 50 thousand pats were assmbled in this computer. Nearly 500 miles long wire was cut into pieces to connect different components. This mainframe computer took 4.5 seconds for multiplication operation, and 3 additions were performed in 1 second.

Meanwhile EDVAC, UNIVAC-I, MARK-II, ENIAC, Z-3, Z-4 etc. mainframe computers were manufactured.

Using many vacuum tubes, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was devised by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert Jr. in 1946. This computer was comparatively efficient as it could perform 30 days' work done by any other computer, in one day at that time. From 1947 to 1955, this computer was used in American Offices.

Division process of Generations of Computers

In 1962, computer scientists held a conference in which they decided to give generations for the development of computers. In different generations, different kinds of memory units were used. In the First Generation Computers, vacuum tubes were used; in the Second Generation Computers, transistors were used as memory device; in the Third Generation Computers, Integrated Circuits (Chips) were used as memory device. But recent advancements over chips has made Fourth Generation Computer consisting of Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), and very soon, we will get Fifth Generation Computers with Artificial Intelligence (AI).

Later in 1969, an Intel engineer named Marcian "Ted" Hoff presented his design ideas for a microprocessor chip to the representatives from a Japanese calculator company. The first microprocessor - the Intel 4004 - could execute only a few instructions, and it could manipulate only tiny amounts of data at one time. Intel produced 8008 at the end of 1971 and 8080 in 1974.

In the spring of 1976, a young Hewlett-Packard technician named Steve Wozniak bought a microprocessor from MOS Technology and set out to build a computer around it. This computer -Apple I- was shown at the Homebrew Computer Club in Silicon Valley. A friend of Wozniak named Steve Jobs, suggested that they will form a company to market the Apple. With the financial and managerial help from Mike Markkula, a former Intel engineer and marketing executive, Apple suddenly became a major entrant into the computer industry.

In 1984, the lower-priced Apple Macintosh appeared with many of the same hardware/software features. Apple was not alone of course. Dozens of software suppliers announced integrated packages in 1984 that were designed for popular personal computers.

But still we have not reached the point of success and Japan has decided to produce fifth generation computers.

Development of Chip

Actual test and implementation of computer started at the end of 1950s. The computer has reached the present stage after going through three major modification stages. Integrated Circuit (IC) was patented by Harwick Johnson of RCA in 1953. Later developments resulted from:

a) the application of photo engraving to IC manufacture.

b) the use of layers of silicon oxide insulation in order to build up multiple layers of crystal circuitry.

The latter of these two methods is often referred to as MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor).

Integrated circuits with the equivalent of more than 100 components are called LSI (Large Scale Integration) and those with more than 1000 components are called VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration).

Modern Integrated Circuits (IC) are built on wafer thin slices of extremely purified silicon crystal CHIPS. Development process of chip is a very tedious task. Meticulously the chips are developed under computer control. Development of a chip is summarized in points given below:

1. The high-purity polycrystalline silicon is the raw material used to manufacture integrated circuit chips, the heart of the computer.
2. Under computer control, the chunks are melted in a crucible and slowly draws upward forming cylindrical boule, or crystal.
3. The crystal is sliced into thin wafers and polished to a mirror finish.
4. Using photolithography, complex circuit patterns representing thousands of transistors, diodes, and capacitors are created on the water's surface.
5. Each chip on the water is then electrically tested.
6. The wafers are then diced, or cut into individual chips.
7. The result is an individual chip approximately 5mm square, a marvel of minaturization that forms the electronic building blocks of countless devices that are improving the world in which we live and work.